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Defining Development
Issues and Ethics
Development in Israel
David’s Development: Past and Present
Dunes and Development
Sinking Development
Stinking Development
Damaging Development: The Destruction of the Red Sea Reefs
Developing towards the Past?
Developing the Desert
Dumpster Development
Desalination Development
Conclusions
Defining Development
“Development” is a big buzzword in the current international arena. The labels “First,” “Second,” and “Third World” countries have become archaic and politically incorrect, replaced by “Developed,” “Developing,” and “Underdeveloped.” Foreign aid now often comes in the form of “development.” Development can refer to almost anything – foreign aid, governance, healthcare, education, disaster relief, economics, infrastructure. The overarching goal of international development is to bring underdeveloped and developing nations to the same status (politically, socially, economically) as developed nations.
Issues and Ethics
A variety of issues exist in the arena of international development. First and foremost is the debate over the nature of development itself. Developed nations, through aid, often seek to develop other nations. This creates an instant moral dilemma: Is the developed world being inappropriately and/or unethically paternalistic (note the sexist language) in its assumption that underdeveloped nations (a label created by the developed countries) desire the types of aid the developed world gives? Development often includes changes to a country’s ideologies, political structures, etc. Is one nation justified in imposing its values and preferences on another?
Development in Israel
Israel, as a nation, is a particularly interesting case in development. The actually country is just over sixty years old. It is a bed of brainpower and technological knowledge. Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, as cities, can rival cities in today’s most developed countries. But just a stone’s throw from a bustling, Westernized mall in Jerusalem lies a slum where the buildings look as though they may have existed in Biblical times with laundry hanging out the windows, trash burning on a nearby hill, and raw sewage. The country (and its people) is a fascinating mix of developed and developing, modern and traditional, innovative and conventional. The types of development going on in Israel reflect this strange mix. Israel is commonly referred to as a “Western” (and, nearly synonymously, “developed”) nation. The country has the money to develop its undeveloped areas as its wishes. Fascinating to explore is whether or not it wishes to do so. The following discussions are reflections of various issues in nature, culture, and environmental sustainability throughout the nation of Israel.
David’s Development: Past and Present
Walls border the Old City of Jerusalem, containing the Dome of the Rock, the ruins of the Temple, the Wailing Wall. The walls, the Temple, the Dome are developments in and of themselves. But less visible, and more ancient, developments lie just to the south, in the ancient city of Jerusalem…the City of David.
David and his army captured the city from the Jesubites. The area was valuable for its proximity to the desert’s “gold.” Natural pools and springs flowed with freshwater (the same water sources alluded to in the Christian New Testament, places where Jesus healed the blind and the lame). Strategically located between deep valleys, the city was feasibly approachable only from the north. In times of siege, desert communities typically run out of water before any other supply. The water was thus David’s greatest asset…and his greatest vulnerability. How to solve the problem? Development, of course!
We tend to think of “development” as a modern action, something we do only in today’s tech world. But what David did was one of the earliest water-based developments still in existence today. Underneath the city, the Hebrews built a tunnel. Rather than an escape route, this tunnel was developed specifically for their water. Water flows within the tunnel, leading to a pool within the city limits. And the tunnel – and flowing water – still exist today. Now that’s sustainable development.
Today, development has been created around this ancient development. The tunnels are an archaeological marvel and a great tourist attraction. Infrastructure has been developed creating an admissions process and granting tourists easier access to the tunnels. Metal staircases and reinforced pathways down to the tunnel are developments, and bring in revenue. But is this more recent development of a development sustainable? Someone traveling through tunnels that were dug through rock is unlikely to cause the system to come crashing down. But continuous wear and tear is likely to have its toll, especially on the areas just around the tunnel. No development is without its costs. Whether or not the benefits of developing David’s city for tourism outweigh the costs is yet to be seen…because, as is the case in so many developments, we are not yet sure what the costs are.
Dunes and Development
On the western coast of Israel, along the banks of the Mediterranean Sea, stretches of sand dunes are prominent. In the existence of sufficient wind, dunes will be mobile. How fast sand dunes move depends on the strength of the wind and the absence or presence of stabilizing vegetation on the dunes. Israel’s mobile dunes move rather slowly (at a rate of around five meters per year) due to its slow winds.
A prevailing issue in development is its unintended and unpredicted effects. Stabilized dunes (those which move minimally and have a great deal of vegetation on them) are home to a very different ecosystem than mobile dunes (those which we traditionally associate with the word “dune” – sandy, minimal vegetation, and most susceptible to wind movement). Psammophilic (sand-loving) species thrive in mobile dunes, and the Israeli sand dunes are home to many endemic species (endemic species are those that grow only in a certain geographic area). If all of Israel’s dunes are stabilized, many psammophiles face extinction.
With this background in mind, several questions arise: What forms of development cause dunes to stabilize or reactivate (become mobile once again)? Which type of dune is preferable? Do we have any right to make that decision?
Because of Israel’s light winds, dunes will spontaneously stabilize if left to their own devices. For hundreds of years, the dunes were kept mobile due to the presence of Bedouin grazing. In the early Zionist days, agriculture was highly prized in Israel – Jews wanted the Promised Land to bloom. Agricultural plots were built on the eastern side of the dunes. Water reservoirs, military bases, housing, quarries, and other standard “developments” were built. The Bedouin were moved and/or forced to settle. The dunes, no longer facing constant devegetation by grazing goats, stabilized. In the late sixties and early seventies, when Israelis lost some military control of the Bedouins, the dunes were reactivated as grazing reemerged. Today, they are once again stabilized.
In short, what is today seen as “desired development” unintentionally causes dunes to stabilize. This affects tourism (people prefer sandy dunes for recreation and viewing) and the psammophilic species endemic to mobile dunes. Artificial reactivation – the purposeful removal of vegetation from dunes – is being tried, but is costly and temporary. It seems unlikely that Israel will ever truly regain the mobile dunes it once had. Whether or not this is unfortunate may be a matter of opinion. But the case of the dunes points to the importance of exploring what unintentional side effects development may have.
Sinking Development
The Dead Sea is famous around the world for its high salinity. A sea so salty a non-swimmer can float in it without fear. Strictly speaking, the Dead Sea is not dead; that is, the body of water is not devoid of life. Certain types of salt-loving bacteria thrive in – and are endemic to – the Dead Sea.
For many years now, Israel and Jordan have been “stealing life” from the Dead Sea. Water is as valuable as ever in this desert region – valuable enough that desalinating water from the Dead Sea at around fifty-seven cents per cubic meter (Ehud Zion for The Jerusalem Post) is reasonable. But this development is costly than the mere price of water pipes and desalination technologies. The draining of the Dead Sea has had devastating effects.
At certain points around the Dead Sea, sinkholes are readily apparent. Underneath the shore and the surface ground of the Dead Sea is a salt layer. When the water level of the sea goes down (due to human “developments” in water use), the salt layer is exposed to more and more groundwater. The salt layer faces dissolution by the undersaturated groundwater. If a void is present underground near a salt layer faced with dissolution, a sinkhole may appear. These voids are decently common, and some of them are huge. The result is a gigantic basin near the shore of the Dead Sea, the bottom of which is a beautiful layer of white, built-up salt. Water pools, showing different colors due to different mineral concentrations. Anoxic sinkholes appear to have black water. Others look blue, yellow, green. The sinkholes themselves are really rather pretty. Less pretty is the danger of a child falling ninety feet while playing on the beach, or a sinkhole suddenly collapsing beneath a road.
Development created the problem of the sinkholes. The question is now what development should do about the sinkholes. The sinkholes endanger other forms of development – human villages and buildings on the shores of the Dead Sea, roads twisting around the lake. Should development focus on trying to protect those developments already present (for example, by building alternative supporting structures for buildings and roads)? Should development attempt to close the sinkholes? To do so would be costly and difficult. It would also be much like placing band-aids on the wounds rather than destroying the weapon.
Sinkholes are not the only downside to the developed drainage of the Dead Sea. Because this drainage is the “weapon” causing the wounds and has other adverse effects, the best developmental solution likely lies in water. Israel and Jordan must somehow “refill” the Dead Sea and find an alternative water source. In doing so, though, they must be careful to not create more problems in the “artificial renaturalization” of the Dead Sea.
Stinking Development
Cranes line the sky in East Jerusalem. Residential condominiums tower over the desert hills. What most would term “development” is happening in the eastern region of the city. But the development stinks. Some of it morally, some of it literally. Some of it both.
Palestinian neighborhoods located outside of the Green Line have been annexed by Jerusalem, taken under the municipality’s control. At the time of their annexation, the Palestinians living under what was now Israeli rule were offered citizenship. Many of them refused, worrying that accepting citizenship would legitimize Israeli rule in the region. Israel, though, provides their water and electricity, controls their buildings and roads. It is legally responsible to provide schooling for the children within its municipal boundaries. Water systems (both delivery and treatment), electrical grids, and education all fall within development. A tour of the East Jerusalem neighborhoods, though, shows a serious inequality in the ongoing development. Jewish neighborhoods have sidewalks, clean streets, and sufficient school buildings. The Palestinian neighborhoods generally have no sidewalks, trash lining the streets, and too few schools. Poverty is rampant. The Ir Amim tour guide speaks of many Palestinian neighborhoods as reminiscent of the “Third World.” Speaking in terms of development, the areas are certainly underdeveloped. And in a nation as wealthy and generally developed as Israel, there is simply no excuse. The state of development in the Palestinian areas, put bluntly, stinks. And the stench is not due only to the lack of proper sewage treatment.
The development of Jewish neighborhoods in East Jerusalem is an entirely different matter. Firstly, much of the Jewish development going on near East Jerusalem is, in fact, illegal. Israeli settlements are not merely tents in the middle of the desert. They are sprawling, urban centers, complete with hospitals and schools. Many illegal settlements are more greatly developed than nearby Palestinian neighborhoods. Jews buy or take land from Palestinians to build homes. Jews cut down the very trees that they planted in the previous century (development in and of themselves) to build ecologically-unfriendly buildings. Urban sprawl is done purposefully in order to stamp as much land as possible as Jewish. This development is far from sustainable. Electrical grids and water pipes have to reach farther. Building is done in haste so that the next building project can be started as soon as possible. Care for the environment during development is not seen as a necessity or as a factor to take into consideration, but rather as a luxury. What is going on may be development, but it is ecologically- and morally-speaking pretty stinking.
Damaging Development: The Destruction of the Red Sea Reefs
The coral reefs of Eilat are one of the greatest natural wonders of Israel. Just south of desert – dry, apparently lifeless desert – is a glorious world of vibrant colors and millions of animals.
But what is beautiful now was once utterly stunning. What is generally seen as “desired development” in Western nations (human settlement, thriving restaurants and hotels, and seaports) can devastate a community. This is the sad story of the reefs in Eilat.
The beauty of the reefs drew attention to settlement in Eilat. What was once a small, relatively low ecological footprint-producing village is now a bustling metropolis of Las Vegas-esque hotels, noisy restaurants on the water, and crowded, artificial beaches. Though the reefs were a primary reason for much of the development, the reefs were not taken into consideration during development. Reefs thrive in conditions of low nutrients, stable temperatures, and clear water. Raw sewage was dumped into the Red Sea from Eilat until 1995, blasting the oligotrophic (low-nutrient) body with nutrients. Sand was imported to make “comfortable” beaches for the tourists, which entered the water and got caught in the coral, harming its food intake and excrement systems. Uncontrolled, ignorant, and uncaring divers and snorkelers broke off bits of coral and took other shells, fish, and materials from the ecosystem. Today, only 30% of the reef being monitored is alive. Most of that loss (down from 70% about twenty-five years ago) is due to the fast-paced, Western development of Eilat.
But there is hope. As of now, the story is merely sad, not tragic. Guides are pleased to report that attempts to save the reefs (changed policies, placing laboratory-grown corals in the sea, etc.) seem to be having an effect. A large portion of the reef is now partitioned off as a nature reserve. Cooperation between tourists, shop owners, snorkeling/diving guides, marine biologists, and government officials is increasing. With luck – and a good amount of focused intention – the development that damaged the reefs can be turned to protect the reef even as humans enjoy the beauty of Eilat.
Developing towards the Past?
General, development is thought of as a “forward-moving,” “progressive” action of increasing modern technology (in the Western sense). But in many places in Israel, “development” is happening that’s moving “backwards.” Israelis – for a mixture of religious, political, social, ecological, economic, and other ideological reasons – purposely seem to be developing towards the past rather than the future. Many communities look at what landscapes and lifestyles looked like in the region’s past (generally based on passages in the Bible, but also referencing archaeological findings) and try to emulate it. An animal reserve near Eilat (southern Israel) has compiled a list of animals that were present in the area during Biblical times. The species – especially those no longer living in Israel in large numbers – are brought to the reserve. (Should another flood come, Noah need make only one stop to load the ark.) Believing the land of Israel to have been covered with trees centuries ago, many forests have been planted. The following selection from Weitz (a prominent figure in the Jewish National Fund) demonstrates the feelings of “redevelopment” or “recreating the past:”
“In the days of yore, Israel was covered with forests…yet in the course of our Exile…people…succeeded in denuding her and left her deserted and naked, arid and sterile as she today appears under our gaze…And when the sons of Israel returned to their land…and they saw there were no longer trees in the land, they began to plant anew as though from the very beginning.” (Weitz 1936, 23-24)
Sitaf (a bit outside Jerusalem) features olive trees and grapevines. The walls have been restored to how they looked in Biblical times. People living on the hillside farm and care for the land in the way they believe the first Jewish Israelites did. Guides are able to give tours showing “the visuals” of Biblical verses.
Some argue that ancient lifestyles are more sustainable or eco-friendly, but most people believe that this “regressive” development is being done for religious reasons. This development is often painted as secondary or a luxury rather than a legitimate method of developing space. But this points to a few questions regarding “progressive” development – What ideologies are driving this type of development? Why is it seen as more valuable? Progressive development has just as strong an ideology backing it as this regressive development, even if it isn’t a religious one.
Developing the Desert
The desert: barren? Lifeless? Dry? Unforgiving? No matter their personal feelings about what the desert may be, a number of Israelis believe the desert areas of Israel need to be populated and kept for Israel. How to do this, though, then becomes a major question. How does one develop the desert? In the Negev region of Israel, scientists, farmers, and religious persons are trying to create ways.
A well-known goal during early Zionism involved an attempt to “make the desert bloom.” Hills that were once sandy or rocky with sparse vegetation are now covered in green. Thousands of cubic meters of water are diverted each year for agriculture. In the desert regions of the country, though, water is even harder to come by, and the land harder to make bloom (at least, in the Western understanding of “blooming”). Developmental research in desert agriculture occurs in several forms. Elaine Solowey is looking at plants that are native to the desert (thrive in the heat, need little water, and have adaptations for high salt content) and trying to domesticate them for mass production and marketing. At the Ashalim Research Station, biologists and farmers are working together to find the optimal ratio of brackish:fresh water for different export crops. Development in the Negev Desert has revealed a large reservoir of brackish water (too salty for human drinking, but not as salty as sea water). This brackish water is much more readily available in the desert region than fresh water. Ashalim is hopeful that some crops with high brackish:fresh water ratios can be found and help “make the desert bloom” more easily. Much of the research happening in desert development is very cool and will be a huge help to Israel’s economy. But the desert itself is far from lifeless, and there may be as yet unseen ecological ramifications for the domestication of the desert. Kibbutz Lotan is a Reform Jewish community that seeks tikkun alum (healing the world) through ecologically sustainable development and living. The commune takes recycling and reusing to the max. Highlights include composting toilets, a playground built of trash, and houses made from mud and straw. Lotan’s composting toilets are currently located only in the Eco Kef (Eco Fun) Park, but they are quite something. The toilets have no flushes, rather, potty-goers throw a cup of ground hay in the toilet. The contents are deposited in large green bins. With the right recipe of dry material, waste, microorganisms, moisture, and air (the bins need to be aired about once a week), the materials turn into a gorgeous and nutrient-filled soil that they can use in their gardens. They have developed a great system whereby everything is used and very little other technology or materials are needed (no electricity or additional water is required in the composting process). Now all that is needed is wider use! Good, sustainable development techniques are being created throughout the world, and yet it continually seems to be the non-ecofriendly methods that are commonly used. In the Eco Kef Park itself (going to the bathroom in the composting toilets is fun, but not considered the main attraction for children), builders have taken old tires, trash, and sand and developed a great playground for climbing, hiding, and playing house. The skeleton from an old Volkswagon Beetle have some mud benches inside to form a play car. Piles of trash and tires are covered and painted to form large animals to climb on. Other formations create play kitchens and tables. The playground is fun, safe, and, when destructed, will not have created any more trash than was on its way to the dump in any case! And in the newest neighborhood of the kibbutz, adorable mud huts house students who come to study environmental justice. The mud huts are constructed primarily of straw bales and handmade mud and bricks. Used oil from the kibbutz kitchen is used to cover the huts in order to prevent wear and tear during the occasional rain. The huts are well-insulated and so require very little cooling and heating. Air conditioners are being installed but should only need to be turned on for a few hours a day. The huts were built using local labor and materials, making them ecofriendly and a great community builder (literally!). One of Israel’s biggest concerns is over water. Many political scientists predict that the next major conflict in the region will be a water war. Many water recycling techniques are put in place throughout the country. But many people hope that the true “water savior” lies in desalination developments – taking sea water from the Mediterranean and other sources and processing it to make fresh water. Reserve osmosis involves placing a huge amount of pressure on salt water by a semipermeable membrane that allows water molecules through, but not sodium molecules. The process is expensive and requires a great deal of energy but does produce very drinkable water. Research is currently underway to make the process more energy efficient and less costly. Beyond the energy concerns, though, lay other worries: What damage might this process due to the seas? The pipe that drains the water is as large as possible to minimize the velocity of the water outflow and lessen the risk of a fish’s being caught in the uptake, but the process involves taking a large amount of naturally-occurring water resource out of a delicate ecosystem. And what to do with the salt deposits left after the desalination process? In some cases, the salt is dehydrated and used as salt. In other instances, the highly-concentrated salt water is placed back in the sea, possibly disturbing a balanced equilibrium. In a shortage, there are two basic economic possibilities: lower demand or increase supply. Israel seems to be leaning mostly on increasing supply. But the Earth does not naturally hold a large amount of fresh water, and the long-term effects of desalination are as yet unknown. If desalination becomes cheap, the technology may become popular and more readily available…and who knows what terrible damage we may unintentionally do to life on Earth. Too often, sustainability and environmental concerns are taken into consideration after initial development is done. This makes environmentalism appear as a nonessential luxury and something done only by tree-hugging hippies. Many of the development techniques practiced in small pockets in Israel can be easily implemented at the beginning of development without much cost and without making the entire focus of the development eco. Integrating environmental concerns into the main foci and attitudes of development is smart. It is not only about justice for other species and the Earth, but the continued existence of humankind on this planet and a better living for all. In Israel, much of its population looks at nature and land from a Western viewpoint. The forests that were planted by the JNF, the peppers and tomatoes that are grown in spite of the fact that this country’s climate is not well-suited for them, and the way that water is used (and, some would argue, abused) demonstrate this. The key to sustainability in Israel may well be a change of attitude. The climate, landscape, and resources of this country are rich and beautiful…but they are very different than what is present in most Western countries. Looking at this land through a Western viewpoint and attempting to make it function exactly as Europe or parts of America do is unwise and unsustainable. It robs the land of its natural beauty – and robs Israelites of the wonderful life they could have in this country, if only they paid attention to what is possible in Israel, even if it is not what is possible somewhere else.
Dumpster Development
Desalination Development
Conclusions
I certainly hope we can have a chat when you get back here. Please check to see who has the responsibility for the trash pickup and the schools. I am under the impression that it is the Palestinian Authority. As to the "illegal" buildings, well, that is a legal issue isn't it. Seems to me that using grave stones for building a road would be considered illegal, too, but I don't recall anyone having been very concerned about that. I guess cemeteries are not sustainable, either. Must EVERYTHING built be sustainable??? I find it hard to believe that what you say about care for the environment during development is "not important". Very interesting. Belinda
ReplyDeleteOn a much less controversial topic, as of the date of this writing, "Dunes and Development" appears twice.
ReplyDelete/papa
As the Jewish-Israeli guide who took us around the settlements and a Jewish-Israeli academic told us, the Jerusalem municipality is currently in charge of electricity, wastewater treatment, and trash pick-up for the Palestinian villages within its boundaries.
ReplyDelete